Ruins of the Old Summer Palace in Beijing, China

Thus, when Chinese environmental activist and visiting professor at Lanzhou University, Zhengchun Zhang posted an open letter was on the Internet in 2005, exposing park officials’ plans to line the gardens’ lake beds with plastic to prevent lakes’ water from being lost through infiltration into the underlying groundwater, a storm of public outrage erupted. Although the plan to seal the lakebed was made in the good interest of the preservation of the Old Summer Palace’s waterfront aesthetics, it was exposed that the plan, which had an estimated cost of 3.6 million US dollars, did not undergo any environmental impact assessment, an approval required by law before any construction begins.

The decision to line the beds of the lakes within the Old Summer Palace with plastic came from the park administration. Beijing is one of the thirstiest cities in the world, with a per capita water resource amount of only one-thirtieth the international average. Falling groundwater levels have also caused surface water to infiltrate more quickly into the ground so that for the lakes such as those in the Old Summer Palace, surface water levels also fall. Because rainwater is also scarce, replenishment of the lake took place artificially, putting extra burden on the city’s already-strained municipal water supply. With no action, the water has to be added into the lakes three times per year; with the planned liners, they only have to be artificially replenished once per year. Preventing loss of water from infiltration to the underlying groundwater would be able to maintain water levels for the flora and fauna dependent on the lakes.

A worker covers an impermeable plastic membrane with soil in the bed of a lake in the Old Summer Palace. Source: Xinhua News Agency

However, opponents of the plan debated fiercely through both online and traditional media outlets. The plan was reminiscent of many other projects to line canals and riverbeds with cement, which began in the 1990’s in Beijing and contributed new ecological challenges. Hard-facing water bodies eliminates interaction between water and the underlying sediment, a crucial part of the ecosystem balance. It also changes the overall hydrology. In summer months, concrete –surfaced lakes heats faster than sediment and accelerates evaporation. The flows between water bodies could also be disrupted, and could change some areas into “dead water”, or even accelerate flow out of the site. Although the plan for the Old Summer Palace called for plastic liners, possible toxic effects of such liners on the ecosystem were not evaluated in any way. Others said that the surface water bodies within the park also constitute historical marsh areas which recharge the areas groundwater levels. Without evaluation, the effects of cutting off such a such of groundwater replenishment were unknown.

Because of the amount of attention the project garnered through online discussion forums and traditional media, the first-ever national level environmental public hearing was called by the National State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA, now the Ministry of Environmental Protection). This was the first time that environmental governance was spurred through pressure from the general public rather than from regulatory officials, and thus, was a milestone in China’s environmental democratization.

As a result, Tsinghua University’s Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Office was called upon to carry out a public report on the site, which at the time of the public hearing, already neared completion. This report was assembled by a team of university experts and made the following recommendations:

1.       The eastern portion of the site should not carry out further sealing using the plastic membrane, and that natural clay material should be used to reduce infiltration.

2.       The plastic membrane installed at the mouth of Elegant Spring Garden should be removed and replaced with clay filling and the original sediment of the lake. The banks of the lake should not utilize any sealing membrane.

3.       The areas of Eternal Spring Garden lake higher than 40.7 meters should immediately remove the sealant membrane and fill with clay. No sealant membrane should be used on the banks.

4.       The installed sealant membrane in Fuhai Lake should be modified. Where gravel has been used as fill, the surface sand should be replaced with natural clay and all the original sediment should be replaced. Other than the area within 10 meters of the dock, the sealant membrane on the revetments of other areas should be removed to ensure adequate infiltration. Additionally, in order to satisfy the ecological needs of the Old Summer Palace park grounds, water usage plans must be made systematically, and the efforts must be made to ensure the quality of the water and prevent contamination

Map of the lakes within the Old Summer Palace and location in China. Source: On sealing a lakebed: mass media and environmental democratisation in China. Ji Ma, 2009

The assessment by Tsinghua University was accepted by SEPA. The report also acknowledged that while these recommendations would likely improve the water shortage situation in the lakes, the impact of the regional hydrology was likely to suffer, and because construction of the sealed lakebeds already neared completion at the time of the report, the true ecological costs of the project could not be assessed.

The expert team from Tsinghua University and general public participants in the hearing mentioned the use of reclaimed wastewater to replenish the lakes. However, like many other water-intensive industries that have been instructed to make use of the city’s reclaimed wastewater resources, it is possible that the limited distribution network and the quality of the reclaimed wastewater may make this difficult presently. In addition, other experts suggested that the sizing and depths of the lakes be adjusted to reflect Beijing’s current water scarcity situation.

Although there may not be one comprehensive answer to the challenges of preserving this historical site, the public hearing held by SEPA at the time fostered the government’s support of public debate on environmental issues. One source reports that in a random sampling of 100 articles returned from a Google search “The Old Summer Palace EIA”, 60 were classified as news articles from major media sources, and 15% were articles from personal blogs or webpages. BBS threads were also an important means of communication, with about half expressing “outrage”, one-sixth supporting the idea of water-tight membranes for conserving water in the lakes, and about 35% expressing neutrality. The second-most supported BBS message on one forum (after one expressing outrage at the membrane itself) was one that expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that the construction of the project was begun without any environmental impact assessment.

A report done by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, found that EIAs in China currently do not sufficiently incorporate ecological issues. A personal conversation with a developer based in Beijing, also confirmed that of all the permits required for a new development, the environmental permits are the easiest to secure. The major problems were listed as follows:

Lack of baseline information about ecological subjects;

Inadequate skill sets among environmental assessment practitioners related to impact prediction, mitigation and restoration, and monitoring.

Post-impact monitoring is not strongly emphasized in training programs

Little value of the importance of public participation in assessments and methods to involve communities

Insufficient sharing of best practice models and international experiences among assessment practitioners.

The above are opportunities for improvement, but, the direction is positive. The same report states that a survey of practitioners of EIAs in China revealed that all showed genuine interest in learning how to better predict environmental impacts. In 2002, the Central Government also released a new version of the China Environmental Impact Assessment Law, which, in addition to requiring all renovation and construction projects carry out EIAs, also encourages greater public participation in the “social duty” of environmental protection. The case of the lakebed sealing at the Old Summer Palace Site, is an excellent and positive example of the future of public participation and EIA.

Example Smart Growth Diagram. Source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_Ymx9e66vrGc/TN8SzEbMLXI/AAAAAAAANC8/GhiTP3nUImE/s1600/052208_Diagram_500.jpg

While reading about Ahwahnee Principles in “Sustainable Infrastructure: The Guide to Green Engineering” I was reminded of the smart growth initiatives that previously intrigued me.  I decided to do research about the polices and share my findings.

The Ahwahnee Principles were initiated by Peter Katz of the Local Government Commission (LGC) and developed by innovative architects: Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Stefanos Polyzoides, Elizabeth Moule, Peter Calthorpe, and Michael Corbett.  In 1991 the principless were presented to over 100 local officials at the Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite, California, where they were eagerly accepted.

The first set of principles was titled “Ahwahnee Principles for Resource Efficient Communities.”  This plan includes community, regional and implantation polices.  The community principles emphasize developing neighborhoods so that homes are located within walking distance of retail shops, schools, and public transit.  There are also concepts that encourage people of all age groups and incomes to live near one another, and that highlight the importance of open space and greenbelts defining each neighborhood.  Lastly, the principles state that development should be designed to use resources such as water and energy efficiently.

Green Area Surrounding Development. Source: http://www.socketsite.com/parkmerced%20Garden.jpg

In 1997, the LGC realized the need for a similar set of policies regarding the economic development of livable communities.  This was titled “The Ahwahnee Principles for Smart Economic Development.”  This document consists of 15 principles to guide economic policies that emphasize the importance of local enterprise and using regional resources.

Local Market. Source: http://lickmyspoon.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/farmers-market-ferry-building-003.jpg

The “Ahwahnee Water Principles” were adopted in 2005 as a second compliment to the “Ahwahnee Principles for Resource Efficient Communities.”  These principles developed out of increasing challenges related to water resource security, water contamination, storm-water runoff, and increased flooding.  The water principles include, but are not limited to: designing compact communities, maintaining natural areas, minimizing impervious surfaces, reducing water demand for landscaping, graywater re-use, installation of water-efficient appliances, public input regarding projects and monitoring of new developments and policies.

Green Stream, Source: http://development.columbus.gov/uploadedImages/Development/Planning_Division/Surveys/GreenStream.JPG

Lastly, the LGC developed the “Ahwahnee Principles for Climate Change.”  These principles prescribe methods to actively mitigate damage that society is doing to the planet, and adapt our current infrastructure systems to inevitable changes in our climate.  These principles include: reducing emissions from automobiles, energy and water efficiency for the residential and commercial sectors, and implementation strategies to achieve these desired reductions.

Like most sustainable/green concepts: the Ahwahnee Principles just seem to make sense.  I didn’t think about it when I was younger, but as I matured I began to really appreciate growing up in a historic town, Marblehead, MA, first developed in the 1600s.  In Marblehead, there are two downtown areas, several small elementary and middle schools, and many parks so I didn’t need to depend on my mom to drive me around as a kid.  I could walk to school, after which my friends and I could bike to a park, play some games outside, get dinner at a pizza place, grab a movie at the local shop, and bike to someone’s house to watch it.  Because my town was formed in a period when people did not depend on automobiles, it promoted walking and biking.  The Ahwahnee principles define several concepts that bring us back to this traditional style of development and design.

Traditional Walkable Community, Source: http://www.panoramicgraphics.com/index.php?/scenes/marblehead-old-town-house--market/

I encourage everyone to spend some time on the Local Government Commission’s website.  The Ahwahnee Principles for Resource-Efficient Communities, Smart Economic Development, Water, and Climate Change are all defined on this website.  Here you can find much more detail on each of the principles sets defined above, as well as case-studies, implementation guides and tools, and many more resources on smart growth.

Snow over my head from the storms!

Over the course of the storm I watched as enormous plows cleared the roads. Later huge snow-blowing vehicles would come widen the road. And lastly, after the storm, bulldozers cleared the built up banks and drifts to get the roads, almost, back to normal.

I started thinking about how unsustainable this method of snow removal is.  Not only are there emissions associated with the operation of massive equipment, but also contamination of the snow from salt and sand, road-side litter, and automotive pollutants.  Lastly, snow removal is hugely expensive! In Placer County 15-20% of the annual road maintenance budget is spent on snow and ice control.  I decided to do some research into solutions that incorporate sustainable snow removal and possible reuse in areas that receive a large amount of snow precipitation.

The most inspirational methods came from the City of Sapporo, the capital of the northern-most Japanese island of Hokkaido.  Sustainable urban development is at the core of Sapporo’s city planning, and as a city with approximately 20 feet of snow accumulation and a population of 1.9 million people, it is vital that snow removal be part of the city’s sustainable initiatives.

Sapporo minimizes its dependence on snow-related transportation using heated roadways, centralized and local snow disposal facilities, and snow melting systems.  In addition to a large, underground snow-melting tank, Sapporo has five Snow Flowing Gutters, which use river water and reclaimed water to move and melt snow.

This gutter system particularly intrigued me.  Basically, there are grates at the sidewalk’s edge.  Citizens then dispose of the snow in front of their residence and businesses into the gutters.  The flowing water carries the snow to a treatment plant or to a snow-melting tank.  If reclaimed wastewater is used, the temperature of the flowing water is generally about 50 degrees Fahrenheit, which melts the snow.  This system eliminates the use of large mechanical vehicles and the emissions and cost associated with them, reduces the need to chemically melt snow, and empowers the city’s inhabitants to help with snow removal.  However, the system is still centralized and the reclaimed water and melted snow are still being carried through pipes off-site.

Diagram of Snow Flowing Gutters: Photo from page 104 at http://publications.piarc.org/ressources/publications_files/3/1694,S-IDcdrom-e.pdf

Photos from inside the snow-melting tanks/gutters:Photo courtesy of the City of Sapporo, Japan in the publication: Asano, Takashi. (2007) “Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies and Applications,” Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.

I wonder how this system could be further developed. Instead of just transporting and disposing of the snow in an innovative way, what if the water from the melted snow could be reused or treated entirely on site in order to reduce stormwater runoff and recharge the groundwater?  Designers could use low-impact design stormwater or rainwater harvesting principles to the melted snow.

This way snow removal would become part of a circular water system.  In areas with considerable snow accumulation, geothermal heat pumps or energy from renewable sources such as photovoltaic panels or a small-scale wind turbine could heat sidewalks or roadways.  In areas with only moderate snowfall this step could be eliminated.  Remaining snow would be shoveled into grates, bringing it underground where it could mix with reclaimed “waste” water to aid in melting the snow.  Finally, all of the water from the premises (wastewater, graywater, stormwater AND snow-melt) could be handled using any variety of sustainable design strategies.   In this context, I particularly like a system similar to that designed by Sherwood Engineers and CMG Landscape Architecture for Old Mint Plaza, where the combined water could infiltrate to the groundwater table.

On-site drainage system at Old Mint Plaza. Image from http://www.cmgsite.com/fileadmin/cmg/home/projects/mint_plaza/CMG_Topos_67.pdf

Over the last two weeks of researching the concept of sustainable snow removal, I have come across many concepts that are in use, and I’ve started to think of new ways to manipulate these systems.  I am truly excited about the idea and I would love to hear about any methods that readers have heard of or thought about!

Fountains, presumably used for increasing levels of dissolved oxygen in a man-made fishing pond

They were cultivating duckweed in enclosed areas of the pond. Maybe it was being used for excess nutirent (nitrogen and phosphorous) removal from ponds receiving reclaimed wastewater

Dead fish in the fishing pond

More dead fish. The resort cleans and cooks fresh catches from this pond to serve to visitors of the eco-resort.

Eco-travel, eco-vacations, and eco-resorts are all hot words right now in China, which is good, in that people are starting to be more aware of the importance of nature. But images like the ones above are a reminder that along with the new vocabulary, some major improvements need to be made in the actual quality of the environments here. Guests should be aware that sometimes, the letters “e-c-o” in front of something may not have much meaning.

Ogamba ki!  This weekend I visited Jinja, home to the largest power production facility in Uganda, the Nalubaale and Kiira hydro electric plants.  I was able to get a decent picture of the dam this year (below); last year I was stopped by AK-47 wielding guards very angry about my camera.  The reason they were so angry is that the twin dams presently produce over 60% of the nation’s electrical power and interruption of either would be devastating.  The remainder is produced from an assortment of smaller thermal and hydro plants, none larger than 50 MW.

Nalubaale Hydroelectric Power Station – Together with the Kiira Power Station provides 380 MW during maximum flow.

Power is used in Uganda for the usual assortment of things, though at a much less intensive level than we in the US are used to.  In wealthier areas it’s common to have lights, refrigerators, computers and televisions but in most of the country there is no power except at central points.  Facilities are then limited to light bulbs, basic refrigeration, cell charging and other basic technology.  While power is not ubiquitous, cell phones seem to be.  A report in 2008 stated that Uganda is the first African country in which there are more cell phones than fixed telephones. In 2008, it was reported that 39% of the population owned cell phones and that by 2014 it is estimated that cell phone penetration in Uganda will reach 70%.  Kiosks such as the one pictured here charge cell phones for a fee.

Phone Charging – In many cases a household will have a phone well before a single light bulb. They may charge them at kiosks like this for a small fee.

Illegal Power – Power lines are often tapped illegally to power small kiosks or shops.

Uganda is a well watered country in most regions and suffers, more than anything, from lack of infrastructure and development.  Although 13% of Ugarda is covered in wetlands, lack of national conservation laws have resulted in a decline in biodiversity in recent years. Most villages, such as the one I am working in, have pit latrines and open ponds or shallow wells for their wastewater and water facilities.  The country receives ample rain, having two wet seasons and two dry seasons about three months long each.  Water is generally available regionally, though often undeveloped making it far or unclean. According to a UNESCO report in 2003, only 59% of the rural population had access to clean, safe drinking water. National urban water coverage is up to 65%, up from 54% in 2000.

Hand Dug Well – This well reached over 120’ before being partially lined with bricks and capped with a hand pump. An expensive solution funded by a local mosque, this well costs 7 million shillings ($3500). Diggers (pictured at rear) are armed with a pick axe and lowered by rope into the hole.

Originating at Lake Victoria to the south east, the Nile River feeds much of Uganda and, as noted above, provides the vast majority of its power.  During times of low rainfall, which Uganda has been experiencing more and more due to climate change, the water level in Lake Victoria falls and with it the output of the main power stations.  As a result and especially when compounded with poor general infrastructure, rolling blackouts are common.  While I was here last summer many parts of the capital city received power every other day.

Looking forward, there are many new power stations planned, most of them relying on the flow of the Nile.  Due to be completed in the next year, the 250 MW Bujagali Hydro Power Station will drastically improve national production.  It comes at the cost of the Bujagali falls, a culturally important land mark and ecosystem and center of some of the best whitewater rafting in the world.  Many in Uganda have protested this station, bringin up issues ranging from an unfair bidding process, to concerns that the natural ecosystem will be destroyed, to questions about how climate change-induced drought make reliance upon hydropower unwise, but it will be completed soon regardless.

Climate change is happening now in Uganda.  I talked with some farmers who have said they don’t know when the traditional wet and dry seasons will occur any more.  Some are planting now, some are harvesting.  Mid-august, typically a wet time in Ddegeya has been bone dry with only a few sprinkles barely reaching the ground for the last 3 weeks.  Today I watched as a landowner cluck clucked a crop of coffee ruined due to lack of rain.  Equally challenging is the country’s rocketing population growth.  With a present population of 34 million in an area smaller than Oregon, it is already a tight place to survive on subsistence farming.  Hills far steeper than seem possible are home to farms and houses.  With the world’s second highest population growth rate of 3.6% per year (over 50% of the population is under age 15 and average births per mother are over 6) and a rising level of consumption and environmental impact, Uganda has a daunting infrastructure and resource challenge ahead. Reports have stated that rapid population growth coupled with climate change (resulting in droughts and flash flooding), water borne disease and poor health infrastructure are some of Uganda’s main current issues.

Crop Fire – Weeks without rain and trash burning lead to many small fires, in this case consuming a dried crop of corn. A young boy attempts to beat out the fire.

Next week I’ll take a look at the projects EWB MIT is working on to address some of the challenges above in our village and provide a brief outlook on Uganda’s future from my perspective.  Send questions as you have them!